二语习得中的个体差异

www.elsevier.com/locate/system

Individualdi󰂀erencesinsecondlanguageacquisition:attitudes,learnersubjectivity,and

L2pragmaticnorms

VirginiaLoCastro

DepartmentodeLenguas,UniversidaddelasAmericas,Sta.CatarinaMartir,72820Puebla,Mexico

Received1November1999;receivedinrevisedform5April2000;accepted18April2000

Abstract

Anecdotalreportsfromclassroomlanguageteacherssuggestthatstudents'professedposi-tiveattitudestowardslearningEnglishandtheirlanguage-relatedbehaviorsoftendonotmatch.Manyclaim``interest''inthelanguageand,whenpushedtoexplain,thelearnerstendtostatethat``itisnecessary''tostudyEnglishfortheirfuturecareersorforstudyabroad.Veryfewseemtobemotivatedtoacculturatetothetargetlanguagecultureornormsofcommunication.ThesereportsmotivatedmydecisiontolookintotheattitudesofEFLlearnersintheformofastudyofindividualdi󰂀erences,speci®cally,onewhichfocusesontherelationshipamongattitudes,learnerself-identity,andwillingnesstoaccommodatetoL2pragmaticnorms.ThispaperreportsonevidenceoftheextentJapaneseEFLlearnersseektoadoptL2communicativenorms.Thedescriptiveaccountexploreslearners'self-reportsonattitudestowardsthetargetlanguage,subjectivereactionstoL2pragmaticnorms,andmoti-vationstowardsaccommodatingtothosenorms.Whilethelevelofresistancetoacquiringpro®ciencyintheuseofL2pragmaticnormsisnotstrong,thelearners'accountsindicatetheire󰂀ortstoestablishaL2self-identitycompatiblewiththeirownindividualgoals.#2001ElsevierScienceLtd.Allrightsreserved.

Keywords:Attitudes;Motivation;Socialconstructionisttheory;Individualdi󰂀erences;Learnersub-jectivity;Secondlanguagepragmaticnorms;Interlanguagepragmatics;Secondlanguagelearning;Secondlanguageacquisition

1.Introduction

Anecdotalreportsfromclassroomlanguageteacherssuggestthatstudents'professedpositiveattitudestowardslearningEnglishandtheirlanguage-related

E-mailaddress:locastro@mailweb.udlab.mx(V.LoCastro).

0346-251X/01/$-seefrontmatter#2001ElsevierScienceLtd.Allrightsreserved.PII:S0346-251X(00)00046-4

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behaviorsoftendonotmatch.Manyclaim``interest''inthelanguageand,whenpushedtoexplain,thelearnerstendtostatethat``itisnecessary''tostudyEnglishfortheirfuturecareersorforstudyabroad.Veryfewseemtobemotivatedtoacculturatetothetargetlanguagecultureornormsofcommunication.ThesereportsmotivatedmydecisiontolookintotheattitudesofEFLlearnersintheformofastudyofindividualdi󰂀erences,speci®callyfocusingontherelationshipamongattitudes,learnerself-identity,andwillingnesstoaccommodatetoL2pragmaticnorms.

Researchonindividualdi󰂀erencesinsecondlanguageacquisition(SLA),whetherconductedfromtheperspectiveoftraditionalsocial-psychologicaltheoryandmethodology(e.g.Gardner,TremblayandMasgoret,1997)orsocialconstructionistapproaches(Peirce,1995;Siegal,1996;Wertsch,1991),hassoughttoexplaintherelationshipbetweensocio-a󰂀ectivefactorsandsecondlanguageacquisition.EarlySLAresearchexaminedtheroleofattitudesandmotivationinpromotinglanguagepro®ciency;muchofthatresearch(e.g.GardnerandLambert,1972)focusedontargetlanguagepro®ciencyintermsofgrammaticalaccuracy,native-likepro-nunciation,andunexaminedtargetlanguageculturalnorms.Morerecently,SLAresearchershavebecomeinterestedinthenotionofpragmaticcompetence,clearlyanimportantcomponentofcurrentde®nitionsofsuccessfullanguagelearning.ThemodelsofcommunicativecompetenceofCanale(1983)andBachman(1989),inspiredbyHymes'(1972)constructofsociolinguisticcompetence,areevidenceofattemptstointegrateL2pragmaticnormsandbehaviorintoatheoryofsecond/foreignlanguagedevelopment.Inconjunctionwiththisexpansionofwhatitmeanstoknowalanguage,questionsarisewithregardstoindividualdi󰂀erencesandtheroleofattitudes,motivation,andlearners'willingnesstoadoptL2standardsforlinguisticaction.

However,theinteractionbetweensuchfactorsandpragmaticdevelopmenthasonlyrecentlybeenaddressed.KasperandSchmidt(1996)acknowledgedthatlearners'willingnesstoadoptL2pragmaticsmaybeparticularlysensitivetotheirattitudestowardstheL2targetcommunityandtheirmotivationforlearningaL2.Inonerecentstudy,Hinkel(1996)examinedESLlearners'knowledgeofL2prag-maticnorms,theirattitudestowardsthem,andtheirself-reportedbehaviors.Shefoundthatthenon-nativespeakers'recognitionofL2pragmaticnormswasnotmatchedbytheirwillingnesstoadoptL2communicativepractices.InMacintyre,Clement,DornyeiandNoels(1998),anintegratedanalysisoflinguistics,commu-nicative,andsocialpsychologicalvariablesisdiscussedinanattempttoaccountforwillingnesstocommunicateinaL2.

Thereisclearlyaneedformoreresearchonrelationshipsamongattitudesandmotivation,andpragmaticdevelopment.WhetheroneadoptsGardner's(1985)socio-educationalmodelofintegrative/instrumentalmotivation,Brown's(1990)extrinsic/intrinsicdichotomy,orPeirce's(1995)constructofinvestment,thelearners'socialidentity,i.e.theconstructionoftheselfinthetargetlanguage,isimplicated.Dothelearnerswanttointegrateintothetargetlanguagecommunity,therebyimplyingacceptanceofL2pragmaticnorms?Ordotheyresistandcontestthereconstructionoftheselfwhichtheintegrativemotiveimplies?Ifso,doessuch

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resistance,explicitorimplicit,introduceastumblingblocktotheirabilitytoadjustto,orevenadopttheinteractionpatternsandlinguisticactionnormsofthetargetlanguagecommunity?Doessuchresistanceobstructtheirlanguagelearning?

ThispaperreportsonastudyontheextenttowhichJapaneseEFLlearnersseektoadoptL2communicativenorms.Thisdescriptiveaccountexploresthelearners'self-reportsonattitudestowardsthetargetlanguage,subjectivereactionstoL2pragmaticnorms,andmotivationstowardsaccommodatingtothosenorms.Itcomprisesanaggregate,hypothesis-generatingpictureofEFLlearnersinJapanwithregardstoindividualdi󰂀erencesandaccommodationtoL2communicativenorms.Firstofall,briefsummariesofrelevantcontributionsfromtheliteraturearepre-sented,followedbyadescriptionofthemethodology.The®ndingsanddiscussionareinthethirdsection.Inthe®nalsection,conclusionsandimplicationsforclass-roompracticesareconsidered2.Literaturereview

AccordingtoKasperandSchmidt(1996),``willingness''hasbeenassumedbyresearchersandeducators;however,thereisalittleempiricalsupportfortheassumptionthatL2learnersseektoachievenative-likecompetence.ItwouldappearthatthelearnerandSLAformacomplexconstellationofvariableswhichinteractwitheachother.Theliteraturereviewaddressesaspectsofthetheoreticalframeworkadaptedinthisstudy.2.1.Learnersubjectivity

Socialconstructionist,learnersubjectivity,andlearnersocializationapproaches,originallyconcernedwith®rstlanguageacquisition(Ochs,1993),haverecentlybeenappliedtoSLAresearch(e.g.Poole,1992;Peirce,1995;Siegal,1996).Aslanguagelearninginvolvestheself-identityofthelearnerasanindividualwithapersonalhistoryandasamemberofagroup,asociety,andaculture,theinputprovidedmaynotbecomeintakeduetoreasonsthatimplicatethelearner'sbeliefsandvaluesaswellasfeaturesofthesocioculturalcontext.Gillette's(1994)studyofthecorrelationoflearnergoalsandL2successdemonstratedthat``alearner'sgoaldependsonalearner'ssocialhistoryandtheusevalueascribedtoforeignlanguagesinhisorherenvironment''(p.210).Peirce(1995,p.12)directlychallengesSLAtheoriststointegrate``atheoryofsocialidentity''intoamorecomprehensiveviewthanhasbeenthecasesofarinlanguagelearning,despitethefactthatsociolinguistslongagoprovidedampleevidencethatlanguageuseandchoiceisapowerfulmeansofiden-tifyingoneselfasamemberofaparticularspeechcommunity.2.2.Attitudesandmotivation

Theliteratureonattitudesandmotivationisextensive(seeGardnerandLambert,1972;Gardner,1985;Oxford,1996,amongothers).OnlyrecentlydidGardner,

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TremblayandMasgoret(1997)publishastudyassessingtherelationshipsamongindividualvariables,®ndingsubstantiallinksbetweena󰂀ectivemeasuresandachievement.Speci®cally,theymeasuredcorrelationsofattitudes,motivation,self-con®dence,anxiety,aptitude,andlearningstrategieswithachievement.Despitethemoreinclusivesetoffactors,theoperationalizationofindividualdi󰂀erencefeaturesremainsproblematic.PotterandWetherell(1987)claimthatattitudesarenot``enduringentities''.Further,informants'notionsofattitudesmaynotmatchthecategoriesoftheresearchers;thestatusofthe``object''whichtheatti-tudeissaidtoassessmayalsonotbeviewedinthesamewaybyresearcherandinformants.Theconnectionbetweenattitudesandbehaviorisnotoriouslydi󰂁culttopredictandassess;socialpressurefrompeers,forexample,canradicallychangeanindividual'sattitudetowardsthe``object''withinthespaceofaclassroomdiscussion.

Graham(1984)reviewsassimilativemotivation,contrastingitwithde®nitionsbySchuman(1978),Brown(1983),andDulay,BurtandKrashen(1982).AllattempttoprovidearepresentationofthevariablesinvolvedinSLA.Assimilativemotivationisclaimedtoimply``thatthelearnerdesirestobecomeanindistinguishablememberofthetargetspeechcommunity''(Graham,1984,p.76).Further,Grahamclaimsthatsuchmotivationischaracteristicoflearnerswhohave``experiencedprolongedcon-tactwiththetargetculture''(Graham,1984,p.77).Clearly,inthecaseofJapaneselearnersofEnglishwhohavenotresidedinanEnglish-speakingcountry,assim-ilativemotivationasde®nedcannotbeausefulanalyticalframeworkforastudyinthatEFLsituation.However,onecharacteristicofassimilativemotivationisofinterest,speci®cally,theclaimthatthemotivationtolearnasecondlanguageappearstodecreaseinstrengthduringadolescence.Baker(1992)foundthesamerelationshipwithregardstothedevelopmentofWelsh±EnglishbilingualisminWalesamongstadolescents.Anumberofalternativeexplanationsareo󰂀eredbybothBakerandGraham,mostlyinvolvingthee󰂀ectofpeerpressure.Itmustbekeptinmind,nevertheless,thattheresearchdiscussedbybothauthorsreferstoadolescentsresidinginthetargetlanguagecommunityand/oracquisitionoftheL2bychildren.

AnotherapproachtomotivationhasbeensuggestedbyPeirce(1995,p.17);sheclaimsthat``investment''wouldbeamoreappropriateterm,signalingthatlearners``invest''inlearningasecondlanguageinordertoincreasetheirculturalcapital(Bourdieu,1991).Accordingtothisview,``thenotionofinvestmentFFFattemptstocapturetherelationshipofthelanguagelearnertothechangingsocialworld''(Peirce,1995,p.17).Further,ratherthanprioritizingacculturationtotheL2com-munity,asmanypreviousattitudesstudieshavedone,thenotionofinvestmentfocusesontheindividuals'selfidentityasthelocusofconcern.Analyzinglanguagelearninghistoriesanddiaries,Gillette(1994)concludedthatlanguageskillsareviewedaseitheravaluableassetoranexternalimpositionbylanguagelearnersinherstudy.Clearly,languagetransmitsreferentialorideationalcontent;however,italsocarriesoutaninterpersonalorintegrativefunction,implyingaL2speaker'sdesiretobeviewedbyco-participantsasacompetentuseroftheL2.How-ever,particularlyinnon-targetlanguagecommunityenvironments,native-likeL2

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competencemaynotbeviewedasdesirable;infact,maintenanceofone's®rstlan-guageidentitymaybeasymbolofe󰂀ortstorejectthehegemonyofEnglishintheworldtoday(Ho󰂀man,1989)2.3.Pragmaticdevelopment

TheliteratureconcerningtherelationshipofattitudesandL2pragmaticabilityisnotextensive.SuccessfulL2languagedevelopmenthasbeenassumedtoinvolvegrammaticalcompetence,speci®callylanguage-basedknowledgeandcompetencies(FirthandWagner,1997,p.285).Indeed,theword``competence'',itisargued(seeGregg,1993,citedinFirthandWagner,1997),denotesexclusivelyaformalistic,context-freelinguisticknowledge,withcontextual,interactivedimensionsrelegatedtotheperformanceaspectofChomsky'sdichotomy,performanceandcompetence.Thistheoryoflanguageisbeingchallenged(ModernLanguageJournal,1997)andargumentsaremade(Hall,1997)foramoreinclusiveSLAbasewhichwouldcom-prisemore``participant-relevant''(FirthandWagner,1997,p.285)individuallear-nerfactors.

AttemptshavebeenmadetolookattheactualteachingofL2pragmaticbehaviors(e.g.``StudiesinSecondLanguageAcquisition'',1996).However,studiesonthee󰂀ectofinstructionarenotnumerous(KasperandSchmidt,1996;Kasper,1997;SatoandBeecken,1997).Bouton(1994)assessedthee󰂀ectofinstructionontheuseofimplicaturebyNNSsinanESLcontext;hisstudy,how-ever,doesnotconsiderattitudes.Morerecently,Hinkel(1996)comparedattitudestowardsL2pragmaticnormswithself-reportsofactualbehaviors.Clearly,giventhepaucityofstudies,thereisaneedtoconsidertheroleofattitudesinpragmaticdevelopment.

2.4.Rationaleforcurrentstudy

ThereisnoquestionthattheworkofGardnerandhiscolleaguesaswellasthatofmanyotherswhohavecontributedtobuildingtheconsiderableknowledgebaseinthe®eldofattitudesandmotivationconstituteseminalcontributionstothestudyoftherelationshipsofattitudes,motivation,andlanguagepro®ciency.Nevertheless,commentingontheresultsofstudiesconductedbyhimselfandhisassociates(Schmidt,1995),Schmidt(1996)statedthatstudiesbasedonlyonaquantitativeapproachhavenottakenthe®eldbeyondwhatisalreadyknown.Researchadoptingqualitativetechniquesoramulti-dimensionalmethodologymaygenerateinsightsintolanguagelearningclosertolearners'viewsandinterpreta-tions.BothPeirce(1995)andGillette(1994)areexamplesofthekindsofstudieswhichareneeded.Emphasisneedstobeplacedonobtainingindividuallearners'accountswithaslittleinterferenceaspossiblefromtheresearcherandthemethodsusedtoelicitthem(Agar,1996).Thepresentstudyseekstocontributetothedevelopmentoftheexpansionofourunderstandingofindividualdi󰂀erencesbypresentingethnographicevidencecollectedinanEnglishasaforeignlanguageenvironment.

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2.5.Researchquestions

Therearetworesearchquestionswhichmotivatethepresentstudy:

1.Whatistheevidencethatlearnersseektointegrateintothetargetlanguagecommunity,therebysignalingareadinesstoadoptL2communicativenorms?2.WhatistheevidencethatlearnersresistandcontesttheconstructionoftheselfwhichacceptanceoftheL2pragmaticnormswouldentail?Datafromfoursourceswerecollectedtogenerateanswerstothesequestions.3.Methodology

ThissectionexplainsthemethodologyemployedtocollectethnographicdatafromJapaneselearnersofEnglishstudyinginJapanduringtheacademicyear1997±1998.Thepurposeofthestudyistoprovidehypothesis-generatingdataforfutureresearchoninteractionsbetweenandamonglearnersubjectivity,attitudesandmotivation,andpragmaticdevelopment.4.Subjects

ThelearnerswerestudentsatInternationalChristianUniversity(ICU)inMitaka,Japan.Mostofthemwereintheir®rstandsecondyears,withthirdandfourthyearstudentsaswellforthespringandwintertermdatacollection.Aboutonethirdoftheinformantsweremale,andtwothirdsfemale,re¯ectingtheoverallratioofthestudentpopulationattheuniversity.TOEFLscoresforICUstudentsoverthepastseveralyears(®guresfor1994)havebeenanaverageof548,witharangeofalowof501andahighof593.Allthethirdandfourthyearstudentsweremajoringinlanguagesandeducation.The®rstandsecondyearlearnerscamefromavarietyofmajors;atthetimeofthedatacollection,theywereallenrolledinanintensiveEnglishprogram.4.1.Datacollection

Thedatawerecollectedinthecontextoffourcourses:Spring1997,Attitudesandmotivationinlanguagelearning(AMLL);Fall1997,Pragmatics;andWinter,1997±1998,Pronunciation,andSophomoreEnglish(SE).ThemainpurposeoftheAMLLandPragmaticscourseswasthedevelopmentofaknowledgebaseinthe®elds.AlthoughthelanguageofinstructionwasEnglish,thecourseswerenotaimedatlanguagepro®ciencydevelopment.Consequently,explicitteachingofL2pragmaticsdidnot®guredirectlyasacourseobjective.Nevertheless,withinthecontextofinstruction,accommodationtothenormsandexpectationsofthetargetlanguagecommunityandthesocialappropriatenessoflanguageusewereexplicitlyaddressedinthereadingsanddiscussion.Thesecondaimwastoactivatethelearners'thinkingaboutthecoursecontentintandemwiththeirselfidentitiesandthedegreetowhich

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theywouldseektoacculturatetothetargetlanguagecommunity;theresearcherastheteacherusedaninductiveapproach.Thatis,shedidnotexplicitlystatethenatureofthegoal.Focusgroups,reactionpapers,andessaysonexamsenabledtheresearchertocollectevidenceoftheirattitudestowardsL2pragmaticsnorms.ItwasinthetwoPronunciationclassesthatpragmaticnormsweredirectlyaddressedintheformoflanguageawareness-raisingandcomprehensiontasks.Onetaskadaptedfromalisteningcomprehensiontextbook(JonesandKimbrough,1987)involvedsixdi󰂀erentspeakersofEnglish,twoNSsandfourNNSs,makingairportannouncements.Aworksheetwasdevelopedtoassessthelearners'reactionstothedi󰂀erenttypesofaccents.Second,twovideo-basedlessonstargetedsegmentsofthe®lm,``TheRisingSun''(Bryce,ConneryandKaufman,1993),tofocusonattitudestowardsthelanguageusedbytwoactorswhoareJapanesespeakersofEnglishandtheenactmentoflinguisticpolitenessanduseofrelatedspeechactsinthe®lm.Finally,videoclipsfromanother®lm,``Itcouldhappentoyou''(Adelson,Hartwick,BaumgartenandLobell,1994),wereusedtodrawattentiontoandteachtheenactmentofthespeechactsofarguing,calmingaperson,andexpressingunderstatement.Thelearnersdevelopedroleplaystoreusethelanguageandthecommunicationstrategiesforthespeechacts.

AwarenessofpragmaticnormswasalsoaddressedinthecontextoftheSEclass;thecoursesyllabusinvolvedtheuseofTannen's(1986)``That'sNotWhatIMeant'',notonlytoteachlanguagethroughcontent,butalsotolearnaboutgender-related,situationallyappropriatecommunicationstrategies.Inadditiontoreadingthebookandclassdiscussionsonthetopics,thestudentswroteessaysontheirowne󰂀ortstochangetheirbehaviorwithmembersoftheoppositesex.Their®nalprojectsrequiredtheygivegrouppresentations;theypresentedtheiranalysesof®lmclipsorofdatatheyhadcollectedofgender-basedlanguageuse.Althoughthecoursedidnotfocusonanyparticulartargetlanguagenorms,theaimwastodevelopaware-nessofappropriacyoflanguageuse.4.2.Datacollectionprocedures

Duetotheimpossibilityofusingoneparticularclassforexperimentaltreatmentsanddata-collection,thefourdi󰂀erentcoursesandclassesservedasopportunitiestoelicitthelearners'viewsontheirattitudestowardsthetargetlanguage,theiriden-titiesasEnglishlanguagelearners,andtheirreactionstoexpectationsthattheyacceptL2pragmaticnorms.

IntheAMLLcourse,the34studentswereaskedtowritetheirreactionstoin-classessaypromptssixtimesduringthe10-weektermaspartofthesyllabus.Theyweregiven20mintocommentinEnglishonthetopics,allofwhichweredirectlyrelatedtowhatwouldbeorhadalreadybeenstudiedinthecourse.Inaddition,bothmid-termand®nalexamessaysincludedopportunitiesforthelearnerstoprovideaccountsoftheirattitudes.

InthePragmaticscourse,followingthe®nalweekoflectures,andareadingonlearnersubjectivity,the33studentsengagedinfocusgroupdiscussions,promptedbyaworksheetwhichsoughttoelicittheirawarenessoftheirselfidentitiesasEFL

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learners.Thecontentofthediscussions,inEnglishorJapanese,wastape-recorded,transcribed,andthensummarized.Inaddition,theinformantswereaskedtowriteonthetopicof``whosepragmaticnorms''.

InthecontextofthePronunciationclassesfor®rstyearstudents(n=36),®velanguageawarenessworksheetsweredeveloped.Video-andaudio-tapesofnativeandnon-nativespeakersofEnglishwereemployedtoincreasetheirawarenessthatspeaking``properly''includesmorethanimprovingtheirpronunciationandintona-tioncontours.Thelearners'worksheetswereanalyzedtoassesstheextenttowhichtheywereawareofsituationallyappropriatelanguage.The®nalclassincludedfocusgroupstodiscussthefollowingtopics:(1)attitudestowardsthelanguageawarenesstasks;(2)attitudestowardsthepronunciationlessons;and(3)theimportancetothempersonallyoflearningEnglish,especiallyfortheirfutures.Itwasjudgedthat,withoutdirectlyaskingthemaboutpragmaticnorms,theirattitudestowardsthem,andtheirstudyofsituationallyappropriatelanguage,thelearnerswouldbelikelytoproducetalkinwhichtheywoulddivulgetheirattitudesandmotivationtowardsL2pragmatics.

Finally,anattitudesandmotivationquestionnaire(seeAppendix)wasadminis-teredtothelearnersinthepronunciationclassesandtheSEclassinthewinterterm,givingasamplesizeof43.Thequestionnaireisamodi®edversionofBaker's(1992),usedinhisworkwithWelshstudentsinWales.

Insum,thedatasourcesusedinthiscurrentstudyare:(1)twotape-recordedgroupdiscussions,summarized;(2)essaysandreactionpapers;(3)languageaware-nessworksheets;and(4)questionnaireresults.4.3.Dataanalysisprocedures

Acontentanalysiswascarriedoutonallofthedatacollectedfromthegroupdiscussions,essays,andlanguageawarenessworksheets.Recurringthemes(Words,L2culture,andIdentityconcerns:seeSection7)andcommentswhichwouldpro-videinsightsintotheinformants'perceptions,attitudes,andsubjectpositionswereisolated.Thequestionnaireresultsareaquantitativesource,thatis,alternateinput,tocontributetowardsacompositeviewofthelearners'attitudes,self-identity,andawarenessofL2pragmaticnorms.5.Findingsanddiscussion5.1.ResearchquestionNo.1

1.Whatistheevidencethatlearnersseektointegrateintothetargetlanguagecommunity,therebysignalingareadinesstoadoptL2communicativenorms?5.1.1.Languageawarenessworksheets

TheLanguageAwarenessworksheetsrevealattitudinaltendencies.Oneexer-ciseassessedtheirgeneralattitudestowardsNNSaccentsinEnglish.Thelearners

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listenedtoatapewithsixdi󰂀erentspeakersofEnglish,twoNSsandfourNNSs,andtheywereaskedtoguesstheL1ofeachspeaker.OneoftheNNSspeakerswasanL1Japanesespeaker.Second,theywereaskedtorateeachspeakeralongthefollowingsemanticdi󰂀erentialscales:

Easytounderstand---Pleasanttolistento---Sophisticated-------Intelligent---------Friendly------------Di󰂁culttounderstand--Unpleasanttolistento------Unsophisticated-------Notintelligent---------Notfriendly

Thismatchedguiseapproachwasemployedtoelicitout-of-awarenessattitudes.Allofthe36informantsindicatedthattheJapanesespeakerwaseasytounderstandandfriendly,butunpleasanttolistento,notsophisticated,andnotintelligent.

Thethirdexerciseaskedthemtostatewhichofthesixspeakerstheywouldliketobeiftheycouldandtogivereasons.Only33ofthe36answeredthisquestionandoutofthose33,21wishedtobeliketheCanadianspeaker,withsixwishingtobeliketheAmerican.Onlyoneofthe33saidbeingtheJapanesewas``okay''.Thisdemonstrationofout-of-awarenessnegativeattitudestowardsJapanesespeakersofEnglishisrevealing;inparticular,inthecontextofthecurrentstudy,thenegativeviewoffellowspeakersoftheL2suggestsadesiretolearnEnglishwellenoughtoavoidthestigmaofspeakingJapanizedEnglish.

Insum,thedatacollectedrevealapositiveorientationtowardslearningEnglish,whichisassumedtobeanindicatorthatstudentswouldseektolearnthelanguagetobepragmaticallypro®cient.However,itshouldbenotedthatsuchanorientationdoesnotnecessarilyresultingoal-orientedbehaviortoachieveahighdegreeofpragmaticabilityinthelanguage.

5.1.2.Questionnaireresults

Someevidencefromthequestionnaireresults(seeAppendix)isrelevanttothepresentstudy.Part2ofthequestionnaireaskedtheinformantstoindicatewhichactivitiesonalistof22itemswouldinvolvethemintheuseofEnglish.Onafour-pointLikertscale,theyindicatedhowimportantorunimportantEnglishwouldbeforthemtodocertainactivities.Onlythoseactivitiesselectedbymorethan20informantsarediscussed.

ForstatementsregardedasImportant,32(74%)ofthe43respondentsselectedtwo,No.18``Toworkabroad,''andNo.11``ToliveinacountrywereEnglishisspoken.''ThenextmostfrequentlychosenitemswereNo.17``Totravelabroad,''(30or70%)andNo.16``Togotograduateschool''(28or65%).ThesefourchoicesallinvolveactivitiesoutsideJapan(i.e.``graduateschool''tendstoconnotestudyabroad).Twoadditionalitemsselectedbymorethan20ofthe43informantswere:No.2``Togetgoodgrades''(22or51%),andNo.21``Tobesuccessfullyacademi-cally''(23or54%).Thesetwore¯ectinformants'concernsatICU,abilingualJapanese-Englishinstitution.

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Under``Alittleimportant,''themostfrequentlychosenitemswereNo.19``ToworkinJapan''(25or58%),No.2``Toearnplentyofmoney''(24or56%),and,chosenby23(53%)each,No.5``Tobecomecleverer''andNo.13``Tobesuccessfulinlife''.Thesestatementsdemonstratetheinformants'interestinemploymentinJapanwherepressuretoemployJapanese-Englishbilingualshasincreasedinthebusinessworld.Theonlyitemratedas``Unimportant''by19outofthe43infor-mants(44%)wasNo.6``Tobeliked''.Thegeneraltendencyrevealedintheques-tionnairedataisthatEnglishlanguagepro®ciencywouldserveinstrumentalpurposeswiththesignalingofsomeconcernwithself-identity.

Part3ofthequestionnairerequiredtheinformantsindicatedegreesofagreementordisagreementwithstatementsabouttheEnglishlanguage.UnderAgreement,i.e.eitherstrongagreementoragreement,10itemswereselectedbymorethan20respondents.Thetwomostfrequentlychosenwere:No.4``I'dliketospeakEnglish¯uently''(43or100%)andNo.19``SpeakingbothJapaneseandEnglishhelpspeopletogetpromotions''(33or77%).Thirty(70%)indicatedthatJapanesepeo-pleshouldspeakEnglish(No.20),while39(91%)acknowledged``Englishisaninternationallanguage''(No.24).OtherstatementsselectedwereNo.1,thattheylikedhearingEnglishspoken(30or70%))andNo.15,thatifoneisbilingual,itiseasiertogetajob(37or86%).Further,42(98%)agreedwithNo.7,that``Englishisalanguageworthlearning,''22(51%)wouldliketheirchildrentospeakEng-lish(No.12),andthen31(72%)consideritimportanttobeabletospeakEnglish(No.13).

AsforDisagreement(thatis,disagreeorstronglydisagree),themostfrequen-tlychosenitemsdemonstratedsupportforthelearningofEnglishforinstru-mentalpurposes.Theinformantsdisagreewiththefollowing:No.8``Englishhasnoplaceintheworld''(39or90%);No.3``It'sawasteoftimetostudyEnglish''(41or95%);No.28``AnyotherEuropeanlanguageisasusefulasEnglish''(23or54%).Further,39ofthe43respondents(91%)stronglydisagreedwiththestate-mentNo.30``KnowinganotherlanguagewellmightcausemetolosemyJapaneseidentity.''

Thequestionnaireresultssuggesttheinformantsinthisstudyhave,overall,apositiveviewofthetargetlanguageandofthevalueofpro®ciencyinEnglishforthemselvesandotherJapaneseaswell.TheyseeconnectionsbetweenEnglishlan-guageabilityandtheirfuturecareers,graduatestudy,travelandlivingabroad.Inordertoassesstheinformants'concernsrelatingtotheirself-identitiesandthetargetlanguage,thefollowingitemsinPart2werecodedasrelevanttothisfactor:1,5,13,14,15,and21(seeAppendix).Thesesevenstatementswerejudgedtore¯ectpossibleissuesofself-identityasanon-nativespeakerofEnglish,basedonfeedbackfromnativeJapaneseinformantsinvolvedinthestudy.Thirty-threeindicatedthattheyconsideredEnglishtobeimportant(16or37%)oralittleimportant(19or44%)withregardstomakingfriends(No.1).SimilarresponseswereobservedforNo.5(``tobecomecleverer'')with27(67%)respondingthatEnglishwasimportanttosomedegree.ForitemsNos.13,14,and15,Englishisviewedasimportant``tobesuccessfulinlife,''(32or79%)``toberegardedassophisticated''(27or63%),and``toberegardedaseducated''(29or68%).The®nalitem,No.21,whichasks

V.LoCastro/System29(2001)69±8979

howimportantEnglishiswithregardstoacademicsuccess,23(54%)thoughtitwasimportantand14(33%)alittleimportant.Clearly,EnglishisimplicatedintheJapaneselearners'self-imageandintheiracademicandfuturecareers.

Furtherquestionnaireitemsrelatedtolearners'selfidentitiesarefoundinPart3,items4,10,12,14,18,21,22,23,25,27,and30.However,ononlythreeoftheitemsdidtheinformants'responsesreach20ormore.ItemNo.4,``I'dliketospeakEnglish¯uently,''all43respondentsindicatedstrongagreement(31or72%)orsimpleagreement(12or28%).ForNo.12,regardingtheirdesiretohavetheirpotentialchildrenspeakEnglish,six(14%)saidthattheystronglyagreed,while16(37%)indicatedtheyagreed.Finally,forNo.22,®ve(12%)stronglyagreedthat``tobeabletospeakEnglishisimportanttobecosmopolitan''and16(37%)agreed.WithregardstoattitudestowardswhetherornottheywouldliketohavebeenbornanativeEnglishspeaker,onlyseven(16%)agreed,withtwo(5%)stronglyagreeingthatitwouldbedesirable(No.21).WhenaskediftheythinkitisimportanttolearntobehavelikeanativespeakerofEnglish(No.25)whenstudyingEnglish,onlytwo(5%)agreedstrongly,with®ve(12%)agreeing.Finally,item30,whichasksif``knowinganotherlanguagewellmightcausemetolosemyJapaneseidentity,''onlyone(2%)stronglyagreed,with22(51%)stronglydisagreeingand17(40%)dis-agreeing.Again,thepicturewhichemergesisthatofthelearners'viewingEnglishpro®ciencythroughaprismofinstrumentalgoals,withratherclearattitudestowardstheirJapaneseidentityassomethingapart.Thiscanbeseenparticularlyinitems25and30.

WithregardstowillingnesstoadoptL2pragmaticnorms,thefollowingitemsinPart2onlywerecodedasrelevant:No.8(``totalktofriendsinschool''),No.9(``totalktoteachersinschool''),No.10(``totalktopeopleoutsideofschool''),No.11(``toliveinacountrywhereEnglishisspoken),andNo.18(``toworkabroad'').Withfouroftheseitems,Englishwasregardedasimportantoralittleimportantbymorethan20oftheinformants:Nos.8,9,11,and18.Theirresponsesre¯ectarealisticassessmentoftheirenvironment:abilingualJapanese±EnglishuniversitysurroundedbyaJapanese-speakingonlycommunity.Thehighest®gureswereforNo.18(42or97%)andNo.9(39or91%asimportanttosomedegree).

Clearly,therespondentsconsiderEnglishtobeimportanttotheircurrentandfuturelives.Nevertheless,theirconcernsaredecidedlyinstrumentalandtheydonotappeartofeeltheirJapaneseidentitywouldbethreatenedbyEnglishlanguagepro®ciency.

5.2.ResearchquestionNo.2

2.WhatistheevidencethatlearnersresistandcontesttheconstructionoftheselfwhichacceptanceoftheL2pragmaticnormswouldentail?

5.2.1.Informantaccounts

Learneraccountsfromthesummary/reactionpapersinthePragmaticscoursedemonstratebothpositiveattitudesaswellassomeresistancetothelearningofasecondlanguage.Firstofall,severalofthelearnersexpressedopinionswhich

80V.LoCastro/System29(2001)69±89

indicatethatbecominglikeanativeEnglishspeakerwouldbedesirable.Thefol-lowingaccountsareunedited,directquotationsfromfourinformants:Wantingtobecomelikeanativespeakercan'tpossiblyhavenegativee󰂀ects.I'velikedEnglish.It'sbecauseeverythinggoodornewseemedtobefromUSA.AlthoughmyEnglishisfarfromthatofnativespeakersnow,IgotsomeMid-westernaccent,whichsomeAmericansrecognizewhiletalking.ThatiswhenIfeelthatIamkindofnativeMidwesterner,whichismypleasure.

IalsothinkthatthefactthatIameagertospeaklikeanativespeaker,whichhasnotachievedyet,helpsmetoimprovemyEnglish.Necessityisnotenough.Desireisimportant.

ThefollowingquotationcomesfromalearnerwhohadgonetotheUSAforthelastyearofhighschool.

First,learningtospeakEnglishwasjustawayto``survive''inthatsituation.Ihadtolearntospeakinordertogotothebathroom,etc.Butastimewentby,IwantedtospeaksothatIcouldgetalongwithotherpeopleFFFOtherwise,I'dbeinESLclassesforeverandnothaveanynativefriends.

However,notalloftheinformantsexpressedpositiveattitudes.Hereareaccountsfromsevendi󰂀erentstudents.

TherearemorethanonesetofpragmaticnormsforEnglishspeakers,becausethosewhouseEnglishasmothertonguehavedi󰂀erencebackgrounds.IstillhavetostudyEnglish,butI'mnotobsessed,feelingnegativeaboutmyabilityinEnglish.

I'mproudthatI'mJapaneseandthatwouldneverbechanged.EvenifIcouldspeakEnglish¯uentlyasanativespeaker,mypersonalityandcharacteristicsofJapanesewon'tchange.

Somehowwemayhavetochangeourwayofthinkingwhenwespeakforeignlanguageandit'snecessary.Butitdoesn'tmeanthatwethrowourowniden-titiesout,instead,weshouldkeep``ourselves.''It'scompletelyimpossibletobecomeaperfectnativespeakerandit'sunnaturalFFFOnemaycometothinkaboutone'sownidentitywhenspeakingthelanguageandawareofimportanceofexistenceofthelearneratthecore.

Thedesiretobelikeanativespeakermightdiscouragethelearnerlaterbecause¯uencyandaccuracyofsoundsarenotsomethingyoucanbeperfectwith.Just

V.LoCastro/System29(2001)69±8981

wantingtoreadanovelintheoriginallanguageortowatchamoviewithoutsubtitleswillmakeagoodmotivation,too.

Imyselfhavemotivationinlearningalanguage.It'stoexpress``myself'',nottobecomelikeasomeoneinotherculture.

Whatwouldyoudowithyour®rstlanguageanditsidentity?Shouldyouthrowitawayandheadforanewone?Idon'tthinkitispossibletoeraseyour®rstidentityevenhowhardyoutry.

Obviously,theseareaccountsfromlearnersatoneuniversityinTokyoand,con-sequently,generalizationstootherpopulationscannotbemade.However,thelearners'statementsdogiveaviewofwhatmaybethetipofalargeiceberg.Twothemeswerementionedfrequently:(1)thefactthateachcultureorregionhasitsownnormsand(2)thatitisimpossibletooperatewithjustonenorm.Thesecondtheme,inparticular,co-occurredwithcommentsthatonemustadjusttotheotherpeopleorgroupinaparticularinteraction.SeveralcitedconcernaboutNSinter-locutorsandclaimedthattheabilitytoadjustdependedonpersonality,levelofmotivation,andcon®dence.Theypredictedthatapersonwouldfeel``uncomfor-table''ingoingfromonecountrytoanotherandnotedthatitisdi󰂁culttoestablishnormsastheyperceivedthereisanunderlyingproblemofdiscrimination.Finally,severalrevealedfrustrationsaboutnotbeingunderstoodincross-culturalcontactsituationsdespitee󰂀ortstoaccommodatetolocalnorms.6.Focusgroups

AsforthefocusgroupsatendofthePragmaticscourse,thecontentanalysis(Agar,1996)ofthesummarizedtape-recordeddatageneratedthreerecurringthemes:(1)words,(2)L2culture,and(3)identityconcerns.Thethreethemesarelistedbelowwithsummarystatementsfromtheinformants'accounts.6.1.Words

.Languagepro®ciencyismorethanjustwordsindictionaries:NNSsmustunderstand``imagesofwords''intheL2.

.IfwordsborrowedfromJapaneseareused,thiscouldleadtofailuretobeunderstood.6.2.L2Culture

.ThereisaneedtolearnthecultureoftheL2:otherwise,``ourgrammarandpronunciationmaybe®ne,butpragmaticfailuremayoccur.''

.ThereisawillingnesstostudyabouttheTLculture;butthestrengthofthewillingnessisrelatedtothelevelofmotivationofthelearner.

82V.LoCastro/System29(2001)69±89

6.3.Identityconcerns

.Theremaybeachangeofpersonalityfromoneculturetoanother;thechangeisrelatedtothepowerdi󰂀erencesbetweenthetwocultures,whichmayresultinalackofself-con®dence.

.ThereisanawarenessofthereactionsoflistenerswhenlearnersusetheL2;thelearnersmayattempttointeractinanewwayinreactiontothepowerdi󰂀er-encesbetweentheNSsandtheNNSs.

.ThereisanawarenessoflanguagetransferfromoneLtoanother,fromoneculturetoanother.

.Twoinformantsfeltthataperson'snameisanexpressionofhim/herself;aNNSmayfeelsheis``denied''iftherearestrongorbadmeaningsconnectedwithhername.Hereisadirectquotationfromoneoftheinformants.InItalian,boy'snameusuallyendswith`o'soundandgirl'snamewith`a'sound.Mynameendswith`o'soundandIreallyhatedit.Itdidn'tdecreasemymoti-vationtolearnthelanguage,butIdidn'twantthemtocallmebymyname..Therewasaconcernexpressedaboutnotbeingabletofeelcomfortable,tobeoneselfintheL2:IspeakJapaneseinarathersharptone.ItakeFrenchcourse,butIfeelIcan'tdothat.Frenchsoundsverysoft,butitisnotmywayofspeaking.

Finally,fromthefocusgroupsinthePronunciationclasscomethesedirect,unedi-tedquotations;thesecondisarhetoricalquestionposedbyoneofthethreelearners.Wedon'thavetopronounceexactlylikeEnglishnativespeakers,buttomakethemunderstand,it'sveryimportant.

Whydowehavetocommunicatewithpeoplefromothercountries?

Wedon'tneedperfectabilitiesofmorethantwolanguages.Wecancommu-nicatewithincompleteability.

6.3.1.Languageawarenessworksheets

ExamplesinthisdatasourceindicateactualresistancetoaccommodatingtoNSpragmaticnorms.IntheLanguageAwarenesstaskcitedabove,theonelearnerwhochosetobeliketheJapanesespeakergavethefollowingreason:``Ithinkit'sgoodenoughtocommunicatewithpeopleinEnglish.''Stillanotherlearnerwrote:``Ifonelearnsforbusiness,itisnotnecessarytospeaklikeanativespeaker.Forone,thetargetlanguageisonlyatoolforone'sbusiness.''

6.3.2.Essays

IntheAMLLcourse,the38studentswrotetheirreactionstoanessaypromptaboutthe``best''typeofmotivationtohaveinlearningaL2.Inalloftheessays,

V.LoCastro/System29(2001)69±8983

therewerenumerouscommentsabouttheirselfidentityaslearners.Theinformantscommentedonthedemotivatingin¯uenceonlearnersoncetheyrealizetheycannotattainNSlevelofpro®ciencyintheL2,andtheywroteoftheirdesiretobecomemembersoftheEnglishspeaking``community''withoutbecominglikeNSsofEng-lish.Withregardstointegrativemotivation,onelearnerwrote:``Ithinkthisisnotthebestone.Oneshouldkeephisownculturalbackground.Withoutit,he/shewilleasilylosehis/heridentity.''7.Conclusion

Thevariousdatasourceshavegeneratedanaggregatepictureoftheinformantsashavinganoverallpositive,yetinstrumentalorientationtowardsthelearningofEnglishasaforeignlanguage.Further,thereisevidenceofakeenawarenessofsocio-a󰂀ectivedimensionsofSLA,inparticularmotivation,self-identity,andtheL2culture.Nevertheless,resistancetoconvergencetowardsNSbehaviorsandL2communicativeexpectationsisapparentwithatleastsomeofthelearners,althoughtheextentoftheresistanceinthecollecteddataisnotstrong.DesiretobecomelikeaNSofEnglish,whichisassumedbyGardner'ssocio-educationalmodelofmoti-vationasthekeytosuccessfulL2languagepro®ciency,maynotbetheunderlyingsourceofpositiveorientationtowardstheL2.Theresultssuggestthatindividualdi󰂀erences,speci®callyattitudes,motivation,andlearnerself-identity,mayin¯uenceandconstrainthewillingnesstoadoptNSstandardsforlinguisticaction.ManyfavorretainingtheirownidentitiesasJapanese,suggestingitasinappropriateforthemtoaccommodatetotheL2pragmaticnorms.

Giventheresultsofthepresentstudyaswellasthe®ndingsofotherstudiessuchasthatofPeirce(1995)citedabove,arevisionofthecurrenttheoreticalframeworkiswarranted.Inparticular,thecomponentsofmotivationinGardner'ssocio-educationalmodelneedtobeexpandedtogiveagreaterroletoindividualdi󰂀er-ences,particularlythoserelatedtoalearner'sidentityasaNNSofthetargetlanguage.Perhapsasaresultofthemassiveworld-widemovementtowardsadop-tionofEnglishasthelanguageofwidercommunicationandthethreatofheg-emonictendenciesonthepartofthenativeEnglishspeakingworldthatmanycountriesconsequentlyexperience,theissueofconstructinganidentitythatincludesbeingacompetentspeakerofEnglishwhileretainingone'sL1andtheL1cultureneedstoberecognizedasanimportantcontributingfactorintheattain-mentofsuccessfullanguagepro®ciency.Todootherwisesmacksofneo-colonialandhegemonicpretensions.8.Applications

Althoughtheinformantsexpressedgenerallypositiveattitudestowardsthetargetlanguageandhaverealistic,instrumentalgoalsforthemselves,thenextstep,fromapedagogicalpointofview,istoseekmeanstoactivatethoseattitudessothat

84V.LoCastro/System29(2001)69±89

motivationisheightenedandexpandedintheclassroomenvironment.Onestudentcommentedasfollows:

Ilearnedpronunciationinjuniorhighschool,butIdon'tknowifithelpedme.Wedidn'thavechancetolistentoactualconversationbetweennativespeakers.Wepracticedpronunciationbutwecouldnotimaginehowtheyspeakactually.It'saproblemofJapaneseEnglisheducation.

Itispossiblethatteachers,teachingpractices,andmaterialsaredemotivatingtotheextentthat,evenwiththemostpositive,thoughinstrumentalattitudes,prag-maticcompetenceremainsunderdeveloped.Theauthorisnotassumingthatatti-tudesareasolepredictorofpragmaticability;however,theargumentthroughoutthispaperisthatattitudesandmotivationallevelarecontributingfactors.Class-roomresearchisneededtodocumentcarefullywhathappenswithregardstoprag-maticdevelopmentandwhatpracticescanpromoteit.Tateyama,Kasper,Mui,TayandThananart(1997)maketheclaimthat,inforeignlanguageteachingcontexts,explicitteachingofpragmaticroutinesisneededandevidencethatitcanbesuc-cessful.

Inadditiontoattentiontoteachingapproaches,whatalsoappearstobeneededisgreaterattentiontothesocial,historical,andideologicalcontextofthelanguageacquisitionorlearningprocess.Forexample,whenJapaneselearnersofEnglishstatethatthey``loveEnglish'',theresearcherneedstoknowwhatthatstatementmeansintheirterms.McGroarty(1996)surveyslanguageattitudesandmotivationinthecontextofstandardsinbothsecondandforeignlanguageenvironmentsandacknowledgestheneedforeducatorstoincreasetheirawarenessoflearners'needstohavetheirL1respectedwhile,atthesametime,developtheirskillsintheL2.Anotherareaofpedagogicalimportanceconcernstheevaluationoflearners'pragmaticability.McNamara(1997)suggeststhatlanguagetestingshouldadoptasocialperspectiveinordertoformulateappropriatetestinginstrumentstoevaluateperformance,speci®cally,interactionsbetweenindividuals.

Finally,betterunderstandingofhowsuccessfullanguagelearnersconstructtheirselfidentitiesasspeakers/writersofsecondlanguageswouldinformteachingprac-tices.Moreclassroom-centeredresearchutilizingindividualaccountsisneededaswellasstudieswhichtakeasocialpsychologicalperspective.Suchconstructsasaccom-modation,intergroup,andethnolinguisticidentitytheoriesmayenlightenourstudies,leadingtoamoreparticipant-sensitivepedagogyforpragmaticdevelopment.Acknowledgements

VerysincerethankstoYamamoto,Taeko,adoctoralcandidateatInternationalChristianUniversity,Tokyo,Japan,forherinvaluablehelpwithtranscriptionsandsummarizationsoftape-recordeddataaswellasforhercontributionasaJapanesenative-speakerinformantthroughoutthisproject.AlsotoDr.R.SchultzoftheUniversityofArizonaforhelpfulcommentsonanearlierdraft.

V.LoCastro/System29(2001)69±8985

Appendix

Questionnaire

n=43

Part1

Listedbelowaresomeofthethingspeopleofyouragedowhennotinschool.Pleaseanswereachoneintermsofwhetheryoudothese.Checkyourchosenanswer.

Checkcolumn1ifyoudotheactivityVeryOften,No.2ifyoudoitFairlyOften,No.3ifyoudoitSometimes,No.4ifyoudoitRarely,andNo.5ifyouNeverdoit.Notethattherespondentswerenotrequiredtoselectalloftheitemsinthispartandsothesamplesizevariesbetween30and43.The®guresinparenthesesarethepercentages.

1.Playsports

2.WatchTV/Videos3.Readnewspapers

4.Readbooksoutofschool5.Readmagazines/comics6.Gotodiscos

7.Playrecords/cassettes/CDs8.Practiceahobby

9.Spendtimewithmenyourage10.Spendtimewithwomenyourage11.Goshopping12.Gotoalibrary13.Donothingmuch

14.Takepartinaclubactivity15.Gotoaconcert16.Watchsports

17.Gotoamovietheatre18.Parttimework19.Travelabroad20.Attendevents21.Other

No.17(17)14(33)9(22)14(33)9(20)1(2)29(71)17(40)11(26)13(31)6(14)6(15)3(7)11(26)1(2)2(5)2(5)3(7)0(0)2(5)5(17)

No.23(7)13(31)9(22)17(40)12(27)1(2)7(17)12(29)10(24)12(29)15(35)12(29)5(12)8(19)4(10)2(5)13(30)12(29)7(18)2(5)3(10)

No.314(33)14(33)13(32)8(19)11(25)4(10)3(7)7(17)14(33)10(24)17(40)11(27)20(48)9(21)12(29)18(45)11(26)7(17)7(18)13(32)13(43)

No.412(29)1(2)9(22)3(7)10(23)9(22)0(0)4(10)5(12)5(12)5(12)5(12)7(17)7(17)17(40)13(33)13(30)10(24)17(43)15(37)4(13)

No.56(14)0(0)1(2)1(2)2(5)26(63)2(5)2(5)2(5)2(5)0(0)7(17)7(17)7(17)8(19)5(13)4(9)9(22)9(23)9(22)5(17)

Usethisspacetogivemorecompleteanswerstothefollowingquestions:8.Whatisyourhobby?

18.Whatkindofparttimeworkdoyoudo?19.Ifyoutravelabroad,wheredoyougo?21.Other:pleasespecify:

86V.LoCastro/System29(2001)69±89

Part2

HowimportantorunimportantisEnglishforyoutodothefollowing?Therearenorightorwronganswers.

IndicatewhetheritwasImportant(ColumnNo.1),ALittleImportant(ColumnNo.2),AlittleUnimportant(ColumnNo.3),orUnimportant(ColumnNo.4).No.1

1.Tomakefriends16(37)2.Toearnplentyofmoney9(21)3.TowatchTV/videos17(40)4.Togetajob20(47)5.Tobecomecleverer5(14)6.Tobeliked1(2)7.Topassexams19(44)8.Totalktofriendsinschool7(16)9.Totalktoteachersinschool20(47)10.Totalktopeopleoutsideofschool5(14)11.ToliveinacountrywhereEnglishisspoken32(74)12.Togetgoodgrades22(51)13.Tobesuccessfulinlife11(26)14.Toberegardedassophisticated6(14)15.Toberegardedaseducated9(21)16.Togotograduateschool28(65)17.Totravelabroad30(70)18.Toworkabroad32(74)19.ToworkinJapan10(23)20.Tokeepupwithclasswork22(51)21.Tobesuccessfulacademically23(54)

No.2

19(44)24(56)18(42)18(42)23(53)10(23)19(44)16(37)19(44)10(23)9(21)10(23)23(53)21(49)20(47)6(14)13(30)10(23)25(58)17(40)14(33)

No.36(14)9(21)6(14)5(14)10(23)13(30)3(7)12(28)3(7)17(40)2(5)7(16)8(19)6(14)7(16)7(16)0(0)1(2)6(14)4(9)6(14)

No.42(5)1(2)2(5)0(0)5(14)19(44)2(5)8(19)1(2)11(26)0(0)4(9)1(2)10(23)7(16)2(5)0(0)0(0)2(5)0(0)0(0)

Part3

HerearesomestatementsabouttheEnglishlanguage.Pleasesaywhetheryouagreeordisagreewiththesestatements.Therearenorightorwronganswers.Pleasebeashonestaspossible.AnswerwithONEofthefollowingchoices.StronglyAgreeAgree

NeitherAgreenorDisagreeDisagree

StronglyDisagree

No.1

1.IlikehearingEnglishspoken.10(23)2.IprefertowatchTVinEnglishthan2(5)inJapanese.

3.It'sawasteoftimetolearnEnglish.0(0)ColumnColumnColumnColumnColumn

No.No.No.No.No.

1:2:3:4:5:

No.2No.3No.4No.520(47)12(28)1(2)0(0)4(9)20(47)17(40)0(0)0(0)

2(5)

13(30)28(65)

V.LoCastro/System29(2001)69±8987

4.I'dliketospeakEnglish¯uently.

5.Englishisadi󰂁cultlanguagetolearn.6.TherearemoreusefullanguagestolearnthanEnglish.

7.Englishisalanguageworthlearning.8.Englishhasnoplaceinthemodernworld.

9.ChildrenshouldnotbemadetolearnEnglish.

10.YouareconsideredahigherclasspersonifyouspeakEnglish.

11.Infuture,IwouldliketomarryanEnglishspeaker.

12.IfIhavechildren,IwouldlikethemtobeEnglishspeaking.

13.ItisimportanttobeabletospeakEnglish.

14.KnowingEnglishmakespeoplecleverer.

15.SpeakingbothJapaneseandEnglishhelpsonegetajob.

16.ItwillcauseproblemsifEnglishisintroducedintotheprimaryschools.17.PeoplewhospeakJapaneseand

EnglishhavemorefriendsthanthosewhospeakonlyJapanese.

18.IrespectpeoplewhospeakbothJapaneseandEnglish.

19.SpeakingbothJapaneseandEnglishhelpspeoplegetpromotionsintheirjobs.20.ItispreferableforJapanesepeopletobeabletospeakEnglish.

21.Ifitwerepossible,IwouldprefertohavebeenbornanEnglishspeaker.22.TobeabletospeakEnglishisimportanttobecosmopolitan.

23.PeoplewhospeakEnglish¯uentlyarewell-educated.

24.Englishistheinternationallanguage.25.WhenwestudyEnglish,weneedtolearntobehavelikeitsnativespeakers.26.TheJapanesePrimeMinistershouldgiveaspeechinEnglishwhenheisinthecountrywhereEnglishisspoken.

31(72)12(28)0(0)0(0)0(0)1(2)13(30)14(33)11(26)4(9)0(0)3(7)26(60)11(26)3(7)22(51)20(47)1(2)0(0)1(2)3(7)3(7)3(7)0(0)6(14)

7(16)

0(0)0(0)

10(23)29(67)

14(33)14(33)5(12)

13(30)6(14)

12(28)9(21)3(7)

23(53)10(23)7(16)

2(5)0(0)

16(37)15(35)4(9)

13(30)18(42)10(23)2(5)1(2)

9(21)

13(30)14(33)6(14)

2(5)

0(0)

16(37)21(49)4(9)4(9)5(12)5(12)5(12)6(14)2(5)5(12)3(7)

10(23)8(19)8(19)

16(37)5(12)

12(28)11(26)7(16)

3(7)0(0)0(0)

11(26)16(37)8(19)28(65)6(14)

4(9)

24(56)11(26)2(5)7(16)

10(23)11(26)13(30)

1(2)

16(37)15(35)6(14)4(9)

14(33)14(33)8(19)

16(37)23(54)3(7)1(2)0(0)2(5)5(12)12(28)15(35)9(21)4(9)

7(16)

10(23)15(35)7(16)

88V.LoCastro/System29(2001)69±89

27.Tobesophisticated,onemustspeakEnglish.

28.ItisnotnecessarytostudyEnglish;anyotherEuropeanlanguage(forexample,FrenchorSpanish)willdo.29.ItisnotnecessarytostudyEnglish:anotherAsianlanguage(KoreanorChinese)wouldbejustasimportant.30.KnowinganotherlanguagewellmightcausemetolosemyJapaneseidentity.

0(0)0(0)1(2)1(2)

6(14)7(16)6(14)0(0)

6(14)16(37)15(35)

13(30)21(49)2(5)16(37)17(40)3(7)3(7)

17(40)22(51)

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